فصلنامه حکمت اسلامی
پیاپی 37 (تابستان 1402)

Most contemporary mathematicians have accepted Cantor's transfinite set theory. In this theory, Cantor's diagonal argument holds special significance and has many interesting and unusual applications. To understand the nature of the diagonal argument and to assess its value and credibility, it's better to employ the diagonal argument in a problem that involves fewer but more self-evident concepts and preliminaries. Therefore, in this article, we have used the diagonal argument to prove a philosophical problem. The philosophical nature of the problem under study has led the presented diagonal argument to be based solely on concepts such as "object", "order", and "actual infinity" without the need for the more complex mathematical concepts presented by Cantor's diagonal argument. It becomes clear that the philosophical value and significance of the presented diagonal argument is not any less than proofs like the proof of correspondence (taṭbīq), the proof of endpoint and midpoint (ṭaraf wa wasaṭ), the proof of ladder (sullamī), the proof of convergence (musāmatah) and other similar proofs.

One of the most significant realms of creation and the broadest determinations of the universe is the realm of intelligence or the world of spirits. Due to its special degree of incorporeality, understanding this realm is not quite possible for ordinary minds whose ideal incorporeality has not yet attained perfection. It requires a particular scientific and practical wayfaring. Attainment to this realm has been a topic of discussion in philosophical and mystical texts of Muslim scholars. Philosophical analyses based on Peripatetic philosophy and the philosophy of Illumination have not been particularly precise in this regard, and are subject to criticism in transcendent philosophy. Transcendent philosophy defines the attainment to the realm of intelligence by elaborating the substantial motion of the soul and its existential transformation until reaching the perceiving active intellect, uniting with it as well as the other levels of intellect in the hierarchical order and being inclusive of the subordinate levels. In Islamic mysticism too, the soul embarks on a spiritual journey towards God, progressively assuming various states and shedding the confines of restrictions and regulations acquired in compound ascension (Mīʿrāj-i Tarkībī) along the way. It, then, proceeds towards its simplicity and totality until it unites with all intellects and holy souls. Both of these analyses have a single essence and it could be concluded that the meaning of attainment to the world of spirits the mystic has arrived at through spiritual experiences, is presented in a demonstrative manner in transcendent philosophy.

Mulla Sadra has categorized incorporeality into two types: imaginal incorporeality and intellectual incorporeality. Accordingly, he has differentiated the arguments for the incorporeality of the soul into two categories. In the context of proving intellectual incorporeality, Mulla Sadra relies on arguments grounded in the perception of universals. While these arguments are valid and acceptable, they do not apply universally to all human souls according to him.Another group of arguments for the intellectual incorporeality of the soul is presented by the previous philosophers. In these arguments, an attempt is made to prove the incorporeality of the faculty of reason through the independence of the intellect from the body and bodily faculties. This conclusion is made through different means such as: by negating the occurrence of cognitive disabilities concurrent with the aging process of the body, by relying on the unequal effects of thought on the soul and body, and by the independence of certain cognitive functions of the intellect from bodily faculties.The truth is that these arguments, apart from being inadequate in establishing the intellectual incorporeality of the soul, are rooted in the common understanding or experimental knowledge of previous centuries. Therefore, a final judgment regarding them depends on their reinterpretation based on the findings of cognitive sciences. However, some of these arguments can at least be applied in proving the imaginal incorporeality of the soul.

The method of acquiring knowledge in various fields of science is essential and yields significant outcomes. One of the problems within the field of philosophy of rights is deal with the following question: Through what method(s) can human beings identify the natural rights of creatures? This article aims to answer this question as follows: Right (entitlement) signifies worthiness. This is a philosophical concept which is understood by comparing each (purposeful) being with its purpose. Due to the division of rights-holders into various categories, different methods are employed to identify their natural rights, as outlined below: Identification of human natural rights is possible through self-awareness, namely through intuitive means. Identification of the inherent rights of the Almighty God is possible through one of three methods intuitive, rational, or scriptural. Natural rights of other types of beings (angels, jinn, animals, plants, inanimate objects, and social groups) are recognized through rational, scriptural, rational-experiential, or scriptural-experiential methods. Consequently, the natural (inherent) rights of beings can be recognized not through one particular method, but through various methods. These methods include: rational, intuitive, scriptural, or a combination of them. The research method employed in this article is the rational method.

Mulla Sadra has categorized incorporeality into two types: imaginal incorporeality and intellectual incorporeality. Accordingly, he has differentiated the arguments for the incorporeality of the soul into two categories. In the context of proving intellectual incorporeality, Mulla Sadra relies on arguments grounded in the perception of universals. While these arguments are valid and acceptable, they do not apply universally to all human souls according to him.Another group of arguments for the intellectual incorporeality of the soul is presented by the previous philosophers. In these arguments, an attempt is made to prove the incorporeality of the faculty of reason through the independence of the intellect from the body and bodily faculties. This conclusion is made through different means such as: by negating the occurrence of cognitive disabilities concurrent with the aging process of the body, by relying on the unequal effects of thought on the soul and body, and by the independence of certain cognitive functions of the intellect from bodily faculties.The truth is that these arguments, apart from being inadequate in establishing the intellectual incorporeality of the soul, are rooted in the common understanding or experimental knowledge of previous centuries. Therefore, a final judgment regarding them depends on their reinterpretation based on the findings of cognitive sciences. However, some of these arguments can at least be applied in proving the imaginal incorporeality of the soul.

The exposition of the connection between the soul and the body has long attracted the attention of scholars. In a beautiful narration, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) likened the relationship between the soul and body to the connection between "meaning and word". In this writing, we aim to explore this analogy as a hypothesis concerning the relationship between the soul and body, utilizing prevalent linguistic and semiotic theories. An analytical, rational and comparative approach is employed. Hence, the primary question of this investigation is: What are the foundations and shared principles between these two connections (the connection between the soul and body on one hand, and the connection between meaning and word on the other)?This research aims to unveil the general principles shared between word and meaning, as well as soul and body. Principles that are explored include unreality and reality, immateriality and materiality, stability and change, inner and outer aspects, annihilation and subsistence, the originality of meaning and soul, and the subordination of word and body. Furthermore, the transfer of ugliness and beauty between each of word and body, meaning and soul to one another and the layered nature of meaning and soul are explored.

Yuval Noah Harari is an Israeli thinker who, in his analysis of history, the future and human challenges, has frequently discussed the nature of religions and their impact on human life. He has presented the existential realities, religion, and above all, God, into three divisions and devalued them to the mythical nature and collective imagination. From his viewpoint, the imagined reality of religion has applications in human life as well as risks that must be approached with vigilance. He points out that despite its undeniable applications, fictional religion is ultimately an imagined phenomenon and can, if its beliefs are embraced as genuine, become a catalyst for human deviation and the promotion of violence. In this paper, we provide a coherent overview of Harari's scattered theories concerning religion and its various consequences, and proceed to critically examine and critique them. The rational and philosophical approach is mostly taken into consideration, with instances where historical discourses and discussions within religion are integrated as per Harari's claims to subject his assertions and analyses to critical evaluation. It is demonstrated that the confusion between the position of reality as it is and the position of something for us in explaining intersubjective realities, and the failure to distinguish between true religion and existing religion, have been some of Harari's main misapprehensions.

Explorations concerning the faculties of the soul are among the most important discussions within Sadrian psychology. Based are two aspects, the discussions on faculties of the soul are interconnected with natural assumptions. Firstly, philosophers prior to Mulla Sadra have discussed psychological problems in the section on natural sciences. Secondly, the soul and body have a close relationship, to the extent that addressing certain issues related to faculties of the soul necessitates discussing bodily issues. In this paper, compiled data have been analyzed and examined using a rational method. It is established that natural assumptions, such as the theory of the four elements, the mizaj (temperaments) and the nine spheres of heaven, as well as empirical propositions regarding the effects and functions of animal body parts, have been employed in three ways in discussions related to the faculties of the soul. Some of these assumptions have been utilized in proving problems, such as enumerating and proving the faculties of the soul, the necessity of the faculty of touch, and proving the faculties of the heavenly souls. Other assumptions have been employed in expounding issues, such as defining and specifying faculties of the soul, elucidating the functions of faculties of the soul, and clarifying the position of tools and faculties of the soul. Some natural assumptions have even originated specific problems related to the discussions on faculties of the soul, such as the problems of faculties of the heavenly soul.

The Quranic revelation is the foundation and basis of religious knowledge and Islamic teachings. Thus, the efficient origin of this revelation holds paramount importance. If its divine nature comes under doubt, its enlightening role would be questioned. Some modern thinkers have challenged the divine nature of Quranic revelation and believe in its human origin. In order to show that their standpoint has a history, they have even attributed human agency to certain traditional theologians. Therefore, it is necessary to examine, based on religious sources, the efficient origin of Quranic revelation from the perspectives of both traditional theologians and modern thinkers.Using analytical, descriptive, and comparative approach, and based on religious sources, this paper aims to investigate the views of Muslim theologians, who hold a traditional interpretation of revelation, and the opinions of modern thinkers. It determines whether any of the traditional theologians asserts the humanness of Quranic revelation or not. After examining the standpoints, it has been concluded that traditional theologians unanimously affirm the divine nature of Quranic revelation. Moreover, verses and narrations also indicate the divine aspect, rendering the human origin incompatible with religious sources.

In this article, we delve into the concept of body and the factors influencing its motion from Ibn Sīnā's perspective, and we explore the impact of these concepts and propositions on classical mechanics. In addition to discussing Ibn Sīnā's opinions, we analyze the evolution of these philosophical topics in Western philosophy (from Descartes and Leibniz to philosophical concepts of Newton) and ultimately provide evidence for the law of inertia, and the laws of conservation of energy and momentum.We also address the philosophical foundations that led to the acceptance of a unified law for describing terrestrial and celestial motions. Through an analytical approach, we demonstrate that the ideas of Ibn Sīnā, transmitted to Europe through the translation of the works of Ibn Rushd, have significantly contributed to the development of classical mechanics. Furthermore, we briefly demonstrate that a portion of Ibn Sīnā's natural philosophy, when combined with appropriate mathematics, can provide a more complete set of some of the fundamental equations in physics.